Sabtu, 21 Maret 2009

FCR-900

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The FCR-900 is a motorcycle in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas based an a Honda CBR900RR. The FCR-900 can be used for most unique jumps and is second fastest bike behind the NRG-500.

Locations

Models

The bike comes in 3 models:

  1. No panels and no windshield.
  2. Windshield without panels that cover the engine.
  3. Windshield with panels that cover the engine.

There are also three different exhaust pipes and the rims can come in a variety of colors (this is the vehicle's secondary color).

Gallery

The first variant.

The second variant.

The third variant.

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Telepon

Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas

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Telepon

Telepon adalah alat telekomunikasi yang dapat mengirimkan pembicaraan melalui sinyal listrik. Umumnya penemu telepon adalah Alexander Graham Bell, dengan telepon pertama dibuat di Boston, Massachusetts, pada tahun 1876. Tetapi, penemu Italia Antonio Meucci telah menciptakan telepon pada tahun 1849, dan pada September 2001, Meucci dengan resmi diterima sebagai pencipta telepon oleh kongres Amerika, dan bukan Alexander Graham Bell.

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Undangan untuk Berpartisipasi di Wikimania 2009 telah dibuka. Kirimkan presentasi Anda sebelum 15 April 2009.
[Sembunyikan]
[Bantulah kami menerjemahkan!]

Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia telah mencapai artikel ke-100.000: Luck By Chance!

Internet

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Visualisasi dari beberapa route pada jaringan Internet

Secara harfiah, internet (kependekan daripada perkataan 'interconnected-networking') ialah rangkaian komputer yang terhubung di dalam beberapa rangkaian. Manakala Internet (huruf 'I' besar) ialah sistem komputer umum, yang berhubung secara global dan menggunakan TCP/IP sebagai protokol pertukaran paket (packet switching communication protocol). Rangkaian internet yang terbesar dinamakan Internet. Cara menghubungkan rangkaian dengan kaedah ini dinamakan internetworking.

Daftar isi

[sembunyikan]

[sunting] Kemunculan Internet

Rangkaian pusat yang membentuk Internet diawali pada tahun 1969 sebagai ARPANET, yang dibangun oleh ARPA (United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). Beberapa penyelidikan awal yang disumbang oleh ARPANET termasuk kaedah rangkaian tanpa-pusat (decentralised network), teori queueing, dan kaedah pertukaran paket (packet switching).

Pada 1 Januari 1983, ARPANET menukar protokol rangkaian pusatnya, dari NCP ke TCP/IP. Ini merupakan awal dari Internet yang kita kenal hari ini.

Pada sekitar 1990-an, Internet telah berkembang dan menyambungkan kebanyakan pengguna jaringan-jaringan komputer yang ada.

[sunting] Internet pada saat ini

Representasi grafis dari jaringan WWW (hanya 0.0001% saja)

Internet dijaga oleh perjanjian bi- atau multilateral dan spesifikasi teknikal (protokol yang menerangkan tentang perpindahan data antara rangkaian). Protokol-protokol ini dibentuk berdasarkan perbincangan Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), yang terbuka kepada umum. Badan ini mengeluarkan dokumen yang dikenali sebagai RFC (Request for Comments). Sebagian dari RFC dijadikan Standar Internet (Internet Standard), oleh Badan Arsitektur Internet (Internet Architecture Board - IAB). Protokol-protokol internet yang sering digunakan adalah seperti, IP, TCP, UDP, DNS, PPP, SLIP, ICMP, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, HTTP, HTTPS, SSH, Telnet, FTP, LDAP, dan SSL.

Beberapa layanan populer di internet yang menggunakan protokol di atas, ialah email/surat elektronik, Usenet, Newsgroup, perkongsian file (File Sharing), WWW (World Wide Web), Gopher, akses sesi (Session Access), WAIS, finger, IRC, MUD, dan MUSH. Di antara semua ini, email/surat elektronik dan World Wide Web lebih kerap digunakan, dan lebih banyak servis yang dibangun berdasarkannya, seperti milis (Mailing List) dan Weblog. Internet memungkinkan adanya servis terkini (Real-time service), seperti web radio, dan webcast, yang dapat diakses di seluruh dunia. Selain itu melalui internet dimungkinkan untuk berkonikasi secara langsung antara dua pengguna atau lebih melalui program pengirim pesan instan seperti Camfrog, Pidgin (Gaim), Trilian, Kopete, Yahoo! Messenger, MSN Messenger dan Windows Live Messenger.

Beberapa servis Internet populer yang berdasarkan sistem Tertutup(?)(Proprietary System), adalah seperti IRC, ICQ, AIM, CDDB, dan Gnutella.

[sunting] Budaya Internet

Jumlah pengguna Internet yang besar dan semakin berkembang, telah mewujudkan budaya internet. Internet juga mempunyai pengaruh yang besar atas ilmu, dan pandangan dunia. Dengan hanya berpandukan mesin pencari seperti Google, pengguna di seluruh dunia mempunyai akses internet yang mudah atas bermacam-macam informasi. Dibanding dengan buku dan perpustakaan, Internet melambangkan penyebaran(decentralization) / pengetahuan (knowledge) informasi dan data secara ekstrim.

Perkembangan Internet juga telah mempengaruhi perkembangan ekonomi. Berbagai transaksi jual beli yang sebelumnya hanya bisa dilakukan dengan cara tatap muka (dan sebagian sangat kecil melalui pos atau telepon), kini sangat mudah dan sering dilakukan melalui Internet. Transaksi melalui Internet ini dikenal dengan nama e-commerce.

Terkait dengan pemerintahan, Internet juga memicu tumbuhnya transparansi pelaksanaan pemerintahan melalui e-government.

[sunting] Tata tertib Internet

Sama seperti halnya sebuah komunitas, Internet juga mempunyai tata tertib tertentu, yang dikenal dengan nama Nettiquette.

[sunting] Isu moral dan undang-undang

Terdapat kebimbangan masyarakat tentang Internet yang berpuncak pada beberapa bahan kontroversi di dalamnya. Pelanggaran hak cipta, pornografi, pencurian identitas, dan ucapan benci (?) (Hate speech), adalah biasa dan sulit dijaga. Hingga tahun 2007, Indonesia masih belum memiliki Cyberlaw, padahal draft akademis RUU Cyberlaw sudah dibahas sejak tahun 2000 oleh Ditjen Postel dan Deperindag. UU yang masih ada kaitannya dengan teknologi informasi dan telekomunikasi adalah UU Telekomunikasi tahun 1999.

Internet juga disalahkan oleh sebagian orang karena dianggap menjadi sebab kematian. Brandon Vedas meninggal dunia akibat pemakaian narkotik yang melampaui batas dengan teman-teman chatting IRCnya memberi semangat. Shawn Woolley bunuh diri karena ketagihan dengan permainan online, Everquest. Brandes ditikam bunuh, dan dimakan oleh Armin Meiwes setelah menjawab iklan dalam internet.

[sunting] Akses Internet

Negara dengan akses internet yang terbaik termasuk Korea Selatan (50% daripada penduduknya mempunyai akses jalurlebar - Broadband), dan Swedia. Terdapat dua bentuk akses internet yang umum, yaitu dial-up, dan jalurlebar. Di Indonesia, seperti negara berkembang dimana akses Internet dan penetrasi PC masih juga rendahlainnya sekitar 42% dari akses Internet melalui fasilitas Public Internet aksss seperti warnet , cybercafe, hotspot dll. Tempat umum lainnya yang sering dipakai untuk akses internet adalah di kampus dan dikantor.

Disamping menggunakan PC (Personal Computer), kita juga bisa mengakses Internet melalui Handphone (HP) menggunakan Fasilitas yang disebut GPRS (General Packet Radio Service). GPRS merupakan salah satu standar komunikasi wireless (nirkabel) yang memiliki kecepatan koneksi 115 kbps dan mendukung aplikasi yang lebih luas (grafis dan multimedia). Teknologi GPRS dapat diakses yang mendukung fasilitas tersebut. Pen-setting-an GPRS pada ponsel Tergantung dari operator (Telkomsel, Indosat, XL, 3) yang digunakan. Biaya akses Internet dihitung melalui besarnya kapasitas (per-kilobite) yang didownload.

[sunting] Penggunaan Internet di tempat umum

Internet juga semakin banyak digunakan di tempat umum. Beberapa tempat umum yang menyediakan layanan internet termasuk perpustakaan, dan internet cafe/warnet (juga disebut Cyber Cafe). Terdapat juga tempat awam yang menyediakan pusat akses internet, seperti Internet Kiosk, Public access Terminal, dan Telepon web.

Terdapat juga toko-toko yang menyediakan akses wi-fi, seperti Wifi-cafe. Pengguna hanya perlu membawa laptop (notebook), atau PDA, yang mempunyai kemampuan wifi untuk mendapatkan akses internet.

[sunting] Tokoh Tokoh Internet Dunia

[sunting] Lihat pula

[sunting] Pranala luar

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Boat

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Boat (disambiguation).
Severn class lifeboat in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. This is the largest class of UK lifeboat at 17 metres long
A boat ambulance in Venice Italy.

A boat is a watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water, and provide transport over it. Usually this water will be inland (lakes) or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed to be operated from a ship in an offshore environment. In naval terms, a boat is something small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). Some boats too large for the naval definition include the Great Lakes freighter, riverboat, narrowboat and ferryboat. Modern submarines can also be called boats, despite their underwater capabilities and size. This may be because the first submarines could be carried by a ship and were not capable of making independent offshore passages. Boats may be used by the military or other government interests, or for research or commercial purposes; but regardless of size, a vessel in private, non-commercial usage is almost certainly a boat. In the Royal Navy, a boat is any submersible, whilst a ship is anything above water, even a rowing boat.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] History

A boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE

Boats have served as a method for short distance transportation since early times.[1] Circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, suggests that boats have been used since very ancient times. The earliest boats have been predicted[2] to be logboats, or possibly boats made from hide or tree bark. The oldest boats to be found by archaeological excavation are logboats from around 7000-9,000 years ago,[3] [4] though a 7000 year-old seagoing boat made from reeds and tar has been found in Kuwait.[5]

Being more capacious than carts and wagons, and suitable for both slow rivers and calm seas, boats were used between 4000BCE-3000BCE in Sumer,[1] ancient Egypt[6] and in the Indian Ocean.[1]

Boats played an important part in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia.[7] Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered in various Indus Valley sites.[8]

The accounts of historians Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo suggest that boats were being used for commerce and traveling.[8]

[edit] Types

Main article: List of boat types
A tug boat, used for towing or pushing other, larger, vessels.

Normally, boats are categorised into two types:

Sailing boats are boats which are propelled solely by means of sails. Motorboats are boats which are propelled by mechanical means to propel itself. Motorboats include boats that propel itself trough the use of both sail and mechanical means.

[edit] Parts and terminology

For more details on this topic, see Glossary of nautical terms.
The hulls of old boats ashore during low tide.

Common to most boats are several key components which make up the main structure of the boat. The hull is the main structural component of the boat which provides buoyancy for the boat. The roughly horizontal, but chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck. In a ship there are often several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. Above the deck are the superstructures. The underside of a deck is the deck head.

An enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin. Several individual structures make up a cabin: the similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coach-roof. The "floor" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads.

The keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a backbone).

The front (or forward end) of a boat is called the bow. Boats of earlier times often featured a figurehead protruding from the front of the bows. The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern. The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port.

[edit] Building materials

See also: Boat building
A ship's lifeboat, built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, United States.

Until the mid 19th century most boats were of all natural materials; primarily wood. Many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French. They called it Ferciment. This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered (troweled) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world, and have faded in and out of popularity to the present. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built of all steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, even the fishing fleets. Private recreational boats in steel are uncommon. In the mid 20th century aluminum gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that will not corrode in salt water, and an aluminum boat built to similar load carrying standards could be built lighter than steel.

A wooden boat operating near shore.

Around the mid 1960s, boats made out of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fiberglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. The coast guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic) boats. Fiberglass boats are extremely strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fiberglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull of the boat. Whether hand laid or built in a mold, FRP boats usually have an outer coating of gelcoat which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight. FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cored FRP is most often found in decking which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired. Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fiber, kevlar(tm) or other similar materials, but it may also indicate other methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one yacht surveyor's eyewitness accounts[9], less structurally sound materials.

Cold molding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fiberglass. In cold molding very thin strips of wood are laid over a form or mold in layers. This layer is then coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold layers together while the resin sets. Layers are built up thus to create the required thickness of hull.

People have even made their own boats or watercraft out of commonly available materials such as foam or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered in a layer of fiberglass and resin.

[edit] Propulsion

The most common means are:

The Wanli Emperor enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers in this Ming Dynasty Chinese painting.

[edit] Track-driven propulsion

The water caterpillar boat propulsion system (Popular Science Monthly, Dec 1918, p68)

An early uncommon means of boat propulsion was referred to as the water caterpillar which is similar in construction to paddles on a conveyor belt and preceded the development of tracked vehicles such as military tanks and earth moving equipment. A series of paddles on chains moved across the bottom of the boat to propel it across the water.[10]

The first water caterpillar was developed by Desblancs in 1782 and propelled by a steam engine. In the United States the first water caterpillar was patented in 1839 by William Leavenworth of New York.

[edit] Buoyancy

See also: Buoyancy

A boat stays afloat because its weight is equal to that of the water it displaces. The material of the boat itself may be heavier than water (per volume), but it forms only the outer layer. Inside it is air, which is negligible in weight. But it does add to the volume. The central term here is density, which is mass per volume. The mass of the boat (plus contents) as a whole has to be divided by the volume below the waterline. If the boat floats, then that is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). To the water it is as if there is water there because the average density is the same. If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will have to increase too, to keep the mass/weight balance equal, so the boat sinks a little to compensate.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ a b c Denemark 2000, page 208
  2. ^ McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 11. ISBN 0-19-814468-7.
  3. ^ "Oldest Boat Unearthed". China.org.cn. http://lanzhou.china.com.cn/english/travel/50131.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.
  4. ^ McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 431. ISBN 0-19-814468-7.
  5. ^ Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002). "Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296 (5574): 1791–1792. doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID 12052936. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/296/5574/1791. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.
  6. ^ McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 0-19-814468-7.
  7. ^ McGrail 2004, page 251
  8. ^ a b McGrail 2004, pages 50-51
  9. ^ Are They Fiberglass Boats Anymore? by David Pascoe, Marine Surveyor
  10. ^ The Caterpillar Is Now Being Applied to Ships, Popular Science monthly, December 1918, page 68, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA68

[edit] References

  • Denemark, Robert Allen; el al. (2000). World System History: The Social Science of Long-Term Change. Routledge. ISBN 0415232767.
  • McGrail, Sean (2004). Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199271860.

[edit] External links

Sister project Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Boat
Sister project Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Boats


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat"
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